BurialsNapatan Meroitic PeriodAfter the reformation of the independent rule in Nubia, in about 1070 BC,1 the Kushite population grew in number and developed in complexity. The Napatan-Meroitic era is more than nine thousand years. Unfortunately, for such an expanded time, we have no information other than a vague perception about the cultural and/or religious aspects. The purpose of this article is to provide a general and basic out look on the burial traditions practiced in ancient Nubia's Napatan-Meroitic period as concluded from archeological excavations and historical records.
As mentioned, during the Naptan-Meroitic period, the Kushite population grew in number and populated more distances along the stretch of the Nile valley, from Elephantine in the north to El-Gezeera region south of Khartoum.2 However, the major cemeteries are located within the big ancient cities of el-Kurru, Napata, Sanam, and Meroe. The beginning of the Napatan-Meroitic era is dated to the first royal burials uncovered at el-Kurru since the end of Egyptian rule. The earliest dates royal burial there belonged to, probably, a king (i.e., with an unknown name- labeled ‘Lord-A’), whose reign is thought to have begun in 890 BC.3 Hence, most historians consider this date to be the starting date for the Napatan-Meroitic period. Many known burial traditions from the Kerma period continued into the Napatan-Meroitic period. These include bed burials within tumuli (i.e., often associated with royal burials) and the tradition of placing the deceased on bed.4 On later periods more variations in burial traditions came into the scene. Coffins were the most popular form of royal burials that was applied to the earliest rulers at el-Kurru.5 The basic structure of the coffins is usually made of wood and, often, inlayed with gold, ivory, as well as other materials for decorations. On the other hand, coffins are also frequent in non-royal cemeteries. Sarcophagus burials (associated with pyramid superstructures) were excavated during the Meroitic period.6 Sarcophagi were usually made of stone.7 Rich people sometimes built themselves small pyramids or simply roofed their tombs with stone blocks, sometimes resembling mastabas in forms.8
Cemeteries of the commoners varied greatly in sizes and findings, depending on the status of the deceased. The practice of Mummification persisted in the Napatan-Meroitic period and was not by any means limited to the royal class.9 Yet, the majority of the locals were buried in simple pits. In ancient Nubia the deceased were placed on different body orientations depending on the location and date of the burial ground. For example, while in Kerma, the bodies were usually contracted facing north , in el-Kurru (in the Napatan period) they were normally laid in an east-west orientation.10 Side-niche pits were made only to accommodate the body on its side. On other cases the body was placed on its back. Also, cases where the bodies were placed on crouched positions were also abundant. Various conclusions may be drawn regarding the deceased body orientation at the period. Excavations suggested that orientation was usually towards the east as the case with the el-Kurru royal burials, which supports the popular religious theme of rebirth as connected to the direction of sun rising.11 The case differs with other cemeteries, where bodies were found buried with diverse orientations. Hence, no concrete conclusion can possibly be made. Grave FindingsAccording to Kushite beliefs, the dead should be accompanied in the afterlife by what they possessed in their lifetimes. Accordingly the deceased were buried along with their important possessions. As a result, archeologists discovered treasures and diverse daily life materials in graves, which enabled us to gain information and improve our perception about Nubian life. The excavated royal graves, including pyramid tomb chambers, contained some of the ancient world’s finest treasures. The treasures included seals, furniture, weapons, horse riding implements such as trappings, jewelry, and personal ornament materials such as kohl and perfume pots.12
Pottery and ceramics, some of which rated as some of the ancient worlds finest types on the other hand, were as well found in extensive amounts. Tomb chambers from the Meroitic era also included large quantities of imported materials from around the Mediterranean world. One tomb, contained silk from Central Asia, and another contained an amphora from Roman-Algeria.13 Of special concern are findings that improved our knowledge of the Kushite religious beliefs. For example, the walls of the tomb chamber of king Tanwetamani's mother (Qalhata) were painted with religious motifs that described judgment of the deceased in the after life.14 Religious texts usually inserted within the mummy’s wrap also helped improve our knowledge of Nubian religion. Objects such as shabits and canopic jars, shed light on the rituals practiced by the ancient Nubians. The jars and such items were discovered in large numbers. On the other hand, burials of lower classes contained everyday life materials with different qualities depending on the status of the deceased. Accompanying pottery and ceramics were personal ornaments such as kohl, jewelry, and figurines of gods and goddesses.
Practices of animal sacrificing seem to have continued in Kushite traditions. In a royal grave at el-Kurru, twenty-four horses were found sacrificed in connection with the sun deity represented by a falcon and a sun disk. It has been noted by ancient writers that some Caucasian tribes practiced a similar tradition of sacrificing horses to the sun.15 Human sacrificing, though small in number but, nonetheless, continued. Many rich graves contained carelessly slaughtered persons who seemed to have been servants.16 Almost every grave with a superstructure contained a funerary chapel. There, fragments of broken pottery were often found. This ritual of breaking pottery after a funerary ceremony has taken place since the Kerma period and clearly has continued into the Napatan-Meroitic period.17 This ritual is not limited to graves with chapels. The quality of the pottery represented the economic status of the deceased. On rich graves, shreds of fine pottery were discovered, while in poorer graves the quality of the pottery is much less.18 Animal sacrifices in front yard of the graves or tomb chambers were regularly performed.
Edited: Jan. 2009. |
